Social Support and Stress

      A clear definition of what social support is has not been developed. The definition is more complex and connects different studies from many theorists. The first study of social support was conducted in the 1970's. However, supportive behavior was already examined in a study as early as 1942. No matter what theory we look at, social support always includes relationships and interactions among people. 

      There are six dynamics developed by Weiss to help us better understand the concept. The first dynamic is “attachment or sense of emotional closeness” and is provided by partners in life such as husbands/wives or lovers might be here as well. The second one is “social integration or a sense of belonging to a group of people with common interests”. This dynamic, of course, describe the group of friends people belong to. The thrid one is “reassurance of worth or the acknowledgment of one's competence and skills” and is given by coworkers. The fourth one is “reliable alliance or self-assurance that one can count on others for assistance under any circumstances”. Family members account for this dynamic. The fifth one is “guidance, advice, and information”. Teachers, any kind of mentors, and also parents can be listed as providers for this dynamic. Finally, children give “Nurturance or the sense of responsibility for the well-being of another”. Kahn later looked into the key components of supportive transactions and said they should include at least three elements. These three were affect (positive feelings), affirmation, and aid (symbolic or material). 

       There are four types of social support. Emotional support consists of feelings of love and trust. (Emotional socializing) Best example is when people can openly communicate and show their concerns for one another. Instrumental support consists of intangible assets/resources such as giving money for someone or helping someone finishing his or her job. (Material aid) Informational support is providing information to someone. (Guidance) Appraisal support is providing detailed feedback. (Communication of expectations). The majority of the studies, however, focus only on the two major type of support; emotional support and instrumental support. 

       Every type of social support can be applied successfully depending on the situation. In case of people who just got fired or lost one of their relatives, emotional support is the best tool someone can use to help the given person to get through rough times. Instrumental support can be provided by coworkers to help each other out at the workplace so they get the job done faster or with the intend to decrease one' heavy workload. Tourists who visit a city where they have never been need informational support. Engineers who assemble a car for the first time want to hear feedback from test drivers what should be modified on the concept. 

      There is a significant, negative relationship between stress and social support. Low level of social support will lead to high lever of stress and it is also associated with problematic behavior mainly in the early stage of life and lower life satisfaction later. High level of social support, on the other hand, helps people to manage stressful situations and to cope with stressors thus reducing their harmful effects.

Resources

Prag, Patrick W. “Stress, Burnout, and Social Support: A Review and Call for Research.” Air Medical Journal. Volume 22. Issue 5. September–October 2003. Pages 18-22.

Baqutayan, Shadiya. "Stress and social support." Indian Journal of Psychological Medicine Jan.-June 2011: 29. Health Reference Center Academic.

Christine, Kerres Malecki, and Kilpatrick Demaray Michelle. "What Type of Support do they Need? Investigating Student Adjustment as Related to Emotional, Informational, Appraisal, and Instrumental Support." School Psychology Quarterly 18.3 (2003): 231-52.

Matyas Keresztes

Types of Stressors

Written By: Michael Kurtagh

Types of Stressors

One of the major individual factors that influence job performance is stress.  Stress is a major issue in the workplace, and managers should do all that they can to solve it because “stressful work demands are thought to reduce employee satisfaction, commitment, and retention.” (Lepine, Lepine & Podsakoff, 2007, p.438)  This blog post will focus on identifying some of the major stressors one experiences in a work environment.   The major workplace stressors are broken down into two categories, hindrance stressors and challenge stressors.  Hindrance stressors are stressful demands that are viewed as roadblocks to achieving goals and accomplishments.  Challenge stressors are stressful demands that are viewed as potential learning and growth experiences.  These two categories are then often split into work and non-work stressors.

Hindrance Stressors:

When comparing the two types of stressors, hindrance stressors can be considered the worst of the two.  While both types can be exhausting and difficult for the person experiencing them, challenge stressors at least offer the potential for personal growth.  Hindrance stressors on the other hand are simply obstacles to the person accomplishing whatever it is they are trying to do.  Because they have no redeeming qualities like challenge stressors, hindrance stressors can be much more of a burden on a person’s work performance. 

Work Related Hindrance Stressors:

As mentioned before, stressors can be further broken down into work and non-work categories.  Work related stressors are those that are directly related to your work.  One type of work related hindrance stressor is role conflict.  Role conflict is the issues that arise when there is differing expectations of the work you are expected to do.  For example, if you’re assigned a task that is measured by both speed and quality, it will be difficult to deliver on both measurements.  If you focus on quickly completing the task, the quality may suffer or vice versa.  This conflict of expectations would be stressful for most everyone.  Another type of work related hindrance stressor is role ambiguity.  Role ambiguity is when a worker is assigned a role with little direction and/or the way their performance in that role will be measure is also unclear.  New employees often suffer this kind of stress because they may not be provided sufficient training or information regarding the job they have been given.  Even if an employee is provided with proper amounts of information about the role they have, they may still suffer stress from role ambiguity if they are unsure how their performance will be graded in that role.  Role overload is when a person is asked to fill too many roles and cannot perform all or some of the roles effectively.  The last work related hindrance stressor is daily hassles.  These are simply any little obstacles that get in the way of completing your main goals and objectives.  This could be things like having to sit through unnecessary meetings or having to complete paperwork.      

Non-Work Related Hindrance Stressors:

Non-work related stressors are events that occur outside of your job but cause stress at work.  One type of non-work related hindrance stressor is work-family conflict.  Work-family conflict is when a family role interferes with a work role, damaging the person’s ability to fulfill those roles.  This conflict can go both ways, with problems at home effecting work performance or problems at work affecting an employee’s family life.  An example would be a big argument with a spouse causing a person to be less attentive and focused on their work.  Another non-work related hindrance stressor is negative life events.  Negative life events are any serious events that cause stress in all facets of the person’s life.  Things like the death of a spouse or being diagnosed with a serious illness will cause a great deal of stress for a person and it can reflect in their work.  The last type of non-work related hindrance stressor is financial uncertainty.  This is when a person is uncertain of or is concerned about their financial stability.      

Challenge Stressors: 

While challenge stressors can be just as difficult as hindrance stressors to cope with, they offer the potential for personal growth.  By having some redeeming value, challenge stressors can often be viewed as almost being positive.  Research states that “learners who experience stress associated with high workload and difficult learning content will exert more energy trying to learn because they believe that by doing so they will eventually come to understand and master the material.” (Jackson, Lepine & Lepine, 2004, p. 885)  A completely stress free environment sounds very nice, but some stress can be good if it helps to motivate a person and bring about their best work.  While hindrance stressors may be nothing but a nuisance, challenge stressors can help to bring out the best of a worker.

Work Related Challenge Stressors:

Like hindrance stressors, challenge stressors are broken down into work and non-work related categories.  One work related stressor is time pressure.  Time pressure is when a person feels that the amount of time they are being given to complete task isn't enough.  While this situation can be and is extremely stressful, the strict time constraints can often cause a person to produce their best and most efficient work.  Having no deadline may result in much less stress, but it can also result in much less efficient and productive work.  Time pressure can be too great though, as evidenced by a Canadian study that showed workers identified time pressure as one of the greatest contributors of stress (Williams, 2003).  Another type of work related challenge stressor is work complexity.  Work complexity is when an employee is tasked with something that they believe is beyond their knowledge or ability.  This can be incredibly stressful but also very rewarding.  By placing the worker outside their comfort zone they can grow a great deal and feel lots of satisfaction if they are successful.  The last work related challenge stressor is work responsibility.  Work responsibility is the scope and importance someone’s job is relative to the responsibility they have to others.  If the failure or success of a task only impacts a few people, the stress of that task will be a lot less.  If many people are depending on the successful competition of the task, the task will be much more stressful.  This added stress isn't necessarily bad though, as it can motivate and inspire the person to give their best effort so that they don’t fail all those counting on them.

Non-Work Related Challenge Stressors:

One type of non-work related challenge stressor is family time demands.  Family time demands is the time a person has to commit to familial activities and responsibilities.  What makes this different than family-work conflict is that family time demands aren't necessarily negative.  Having to attend a child’s school event may create stress if it conflicts with work, but there’s no negative aspect.  Another type of non-work related challenge stressor is personal development.  Personal development is any actions being taken by an individual to better themselves.  This could be things like volunteer work or music lessons.  Having to commit time to these events may cause stress, but they result in positive outcomes.  The final non-work related challenge stressor is positive life events.  This could be things like pregnancy or marriage.  While these events can cause a great deal of stress, their positive nature means it’s much easier to deal with.

Conclusion:

            Being able to understand and identify the major types of stressors is an important skill for both employees and employers.  By understanding the types of stressors, an employee can better anticipate stressful situations and prepare themselves to deal with it.  They can also differentiate between challenge and hindrance stressors which would allow them to better manage their stress.  Knowing that situations that produce challenge stress are beneficial would help an employee be less frustrated because they understand that there is a reward for experiencing that stress.  An employer can benefit a great deal by knowing the types of stressors because they can better understand what their employees may be experiencing.  If the employer can identify what may cause hindrance stress they can attempt to remedy those situations before employees are affected.  Overall, stress is a major influence on the an individual’s job performance and understanding the major types of stressors is an important step in dealing with stress. 

References:

LePine, J. A., LePine, M. A., & Saul, J. R. (2007). Relationships among work and non-work challenge and hindrance stressors and non-work and work criteria: A model of cross-domain stressor effects. (pp. 35-72). US: Elsevier Science/JAI Press. Retrieved from Proquest.

LePine, J. A., LePine, M. A., & Jackson, C. L. (2004). Challenge and hindrance stress: Relationships with exhaustion, motivation to learn, and learning performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 89(5), 883-891. Retrieved from Proquest.

Williams, C. (2003). Sources of workplace stress. Perspectives on Labour and Income, 15(3), 0-n/a. Retrieved from Proquest.

         

The Experience of Strain

Jake Harlick

                Strain is defined as the negative consequences associated with stress. It is the physiological, psychological, or behavioral reactions that occur when the body has been placed in a stressful environment for too long. The body has a defense system for dealing with stress which causes more blood to be pumped to the brain and skeletal structure in order to be more alert and durable during the stressful encounter. If the encounter lasts too long the lack of blood going to the rest of the body will begin to result in break downs that can show themselves in the form of the reactions listed above causing exhaustion, irritability, and aches among other things. Physiological strains are those that a person feels physically due to stress. These can include immune system deficiency causing the person to be more susceptible to illness, cardiovascular in the raising of blood pressure and strain on the heart, musculoskeletal causing headaches, tight shoulders and back pain, or gastrointestinal which includes stomachaches and intestinal issues. Following that is Psychological strains which are mental strain that causes people to breakdown from stress, there are many different ways of showing it including depression and anger, all of these symptoms generally refer to burnout condition where the individual does not feel like going on any longer in their work, activity, or in very serious cases their life. Last are behavioral strains where the person acts different than they would on a day to day basis due to the recent stress, this can include substance abuse such as drugs, alcohol, or smoking or just an overall attitude change where they begin to treat others differently and demand things they wouldn’t typically demand.

                Physiological, psychological, and behavioral strains are all very common in the work place. These strains are the end result of different workplace situations on overall employee well-being. If a company is seeing signs of strain all throughout their day to day operations it can be a bad sign of where the organization is heading. This is because as moral decreases and strain increases the productivity and quality of work being put out will decrease more and more causing the entire company to malfunction as a whole. This can turn into a viscous circle if not dealt with properly because if a supervisor comes down on his or her already depleted work force this will only worsen the issue and cause more strain. It is crucial to provide a workplace that makes employees feel comfortable most of the time in order to divert some of the stress that is unnecessary. Keeping some stress is good though such as tight deadlines because it keeps employees accountable, but if work load is unbearable and communication is always negative a company will see all signs of strain appear in the workplace and will suffer accordingly.

                Physiological strain is present in many jobs.  A study was done of the physiological strain of police officers when executing operations on an assignment. Officers were put in suits to protect them from different hazmat type situations and then told to do forced entries and other high intensity police drills. The goal of this study was to help set safety standards for the use of this suit. During the study there were 3 men who were forced to drop out of the drill because of exhaustion. This is an example of physiological strain in the workplace and how it can directly affect job performance. In law enforcement if an officer cannot complete the task because of the physiological strain placed on their body it is both bad for their own health and also bad for the well-being of citizens because the criminals will not be caught (Sam D. Blacker).

                Burnout is one of the most common forms of psychological strain that results in an individual giving up on the cause of the burnout. It can be very common in the workplace and although it may seem that it is the individual who has become burnt out, “burnout is more of a social phenomenon, than an individual one” (Maslach). This is because an individual typically does not get burned out on their own. It is based on many environmental factors that add up to them not feeling like the stress created is worth it anymore. These factors can include unfriendly coworkers, an intolerable boss, or just too heavy of a work load. These all add to the person’s mental health fading to the point where they reach complete exhaustion in relation to the job and choose to move on rather than deal with the physiological strain any longer.

                Behavioral strain is a common result from being over stressed that is the most observable by other people. The signs can be over or under eating, angry outbursts, drug, tobacco, or alcohol use. These behavioral reactions to stress can cause physiological strain on the body In turn making issues grow to unhealthy levels. It is best to control stress and get proper rest when needed to keep the body at a healthy level (Mayo).

                All of this information related to strain relates to class in many ways. Of these is most notably employee well-being and job performance. Companies run on their employees and if an environment has been created where employees are unhappy to the point where it becomes unhealthy, then the company will fail. This becomes management’s responsibility to create a fun environment that still requires employees to be hard workers. If this can be achieved it will benefit the company exponentially because employees will feel more motivated to work and create a good product or service because they truly enjoy their work.

                Taking away from the information gathered on the experience of strain for the human body, it is evident that removing yourself from situations that can hurt you physiologically, psychologically, or behaviorally, is a good practice. Students getting into working America should be conscious to the fact that a job that causes excessive amounts of the three types of strain may not be the best career to stick with and should consider other options. These are good principals to hold in order for a person to create the overall best quality of life for themselves.

References:

Physiological responses of Police Officers during job simulations wearing chemical, biological, radiological and nuclear personal protective equipment
Sam D. Blacker, James M. Carter, David M. Wilkinson, Victoria L. Richmond, Mark P. Rayson, Malcolm Peattie
Ergonomics
Vol. 56, Iss. 1, 2013

 Job burnout
Maslach C ; Schaufeli WB ; Leiter MP
ANNUAL REVIEW OF PSYCHOLOGY  Volume: 52   Pages: 397-422   10.1146/annurev.psych.52.1.397   Published: 2001


Mayo Clinic Staff. http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/stress-symptoms/SR00008_D

Stress Resilience and Management

Written by:  Sonia Zafar

When observing stress in a workplace, it can be seen that some employees seem to be more resistant to stress than others. According to Dr. Redford Williams, this is caused by different personalities that people have. Some people do not experience negative emotions such as anxiety, fear, anger, etc. that can lead to stress. The people who are less resistant to stress are more sensitive when experiencing such emotions. Life experiences also tend to cause some people to be less or more resilient to stressful situations. People who have had a rough childhood tend to get stressed out faster than those who did not. The book discusses the “transactional theory of stress” which explains how stressors are perceived and appraised. When a person first encounters stressors, they evaluate the importance of the stressors. Those who are less resilient are also at a higher risk of developing psychiatric disorders such as PTSD and depression.

Guillén Fernández of the Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition, and Behavior stated that “Exposure to stress causes fundamental changes in the state of the brain, and the brain’s response to stress differs widely among individuals” (Costandi, 2010). Stress causes hormones such as cortisol to be released which leads to high alertness and those who are more vulnerable to stress tend to stay alert long after the stressful situation is over. Fernández and his colleagues published a recent study in which they provide evidence that there is a link between sensitivity to stress and the variations in the gene encoding ADRA2B (Costandi, 2010). The research stated that the participants who carry a common variation in the gene receptor had higher response to stress than those who did not have the variation.  

According to Rebecca Maxon, “Three out of every four American workers describe their work as stressful…workplace stress costs U.S. employers an estimated $200 billion per year in absenteeism, lower productivity, staff turnover, workers’ compensation, medical insurance and other stress-related expenses…60% of lost workdays each year can be attributed to stress and 75-90% of visits to health care providers are due to stress-related conditions” (Maxon, 1999). As a result of this, providing stress management assistance would decrease employers’ expenses that are caused by stress. One would think that stress is something people would experience most outside of work especially during a major life event. But according to the Holmes-Rahe Life Events Scale, workplace related stress is one of the most common type of stress. Because stress management techniques are not very commonly taught in most workplaces, aggression and violence in the workplace has also been in the rise. The U.S. Justice Department estimated that each year roughly a million people are victims of violence at work which accounts for 15% of the violent crime in the country.

The issue of stress in the workplace can be solved if employees are given knowledge on how to manage stress. The first step is to assess the levels of stress. The book mentions a “stress audit” which is a way managers can question themselves about the jobs their employees have and whether high stress levels may be a problem for them. The second step is to try and reduce or eliminate the stressors. For example, if one person in a company is given too much of a workload, their job performance can drastically decrease. In order to reduce the stress, the company can consider job sharing which would split the work and decrease stress for all parties involved. The book also mentions another way of how companies can reduce stressors, which is an employee sabbatical. This is a paid leave opportunity in order to take part in another activity such as volunteer work or to go back to school.

Learning about how some people are more resilient to stress than others can help create a workplace environment that is comfortable for all employees. Just because one person may be able to tolerate stress does not mean that his or her coworkers/employees are the same. By keeping that in mind, employees will not experience stress from a large workload which ultimately can reduce costs incurred by stress related issues. If stress is already an issue in the workplace, it is important to assess the situation and make sure that employees are able to manage the stress.

Costandi , M. (2010, October 04). Stress and the brain: What makes some of us more vulnerable than others? . Retrieved from http://www.dana.org/news/features/detail.aspx?id=29178

Maxon, R. (1999). Stress in the workplace: A costly epidemic. Retrieved from http://www.fdu.edu/newspubs/magazine/99su/stress.html

Williams, R. (2008, November 21). Do we know why some people feel 'less stressed' than others or just cope better with stress?. Retrieved from http://abcnews.go.com/Health/StressReacting/story?id=4672869

Coping With Stress

Written By: Bryan Baines         

  People always talk about how stressed out they are. Everyone wants to be stress free, but whether people want to admit it or not, stress is an integral part of our lives. It can frustrate us, motivate us, shut us down, or build us up. Many times stress is the driving force behind our productivity, but we don’t realize it. The truth is stress will always be present in our lives, and it’s how we cope with this stress that shapes who we are.

            Often times, the most stressful part of someone’s life is their job. Job deadlines and multiple projects create a sense of urgency and time pressure. Along with social stressors and responsibility pressures, job stress can mount up dramatically. Built up stress can have serious effect on people. Stress can decrease the usefulness of the body’s immune system; weaken the cardiovascular system, cause problems in the musculoskeletal system, and gastrointestinal system troubles. Along with these physiological areas, stress can affect the psychological areas of the body and cause depression, anger, memory loss and many other sociological issues. When stress becomes too much, the body suffers from burnout. Companies have taken notice, and many have begun to take steps to help their employees deal with stress. This benefits both the employees and the companies themselves. According to Dr. Paul Rosch from the American Institute of Stress, he estimates that annual stress-related costs to employers are as high as $150 billion.

            Stress management programs have been the most common way that employers help their employees to deal with job related stress. These programs can teach employees methods as simple as take a deep breath and counting to ten, or how to engage in peaceful meditation. Since every employee is different, companies know that they need to offer a wide range of possible programs. Newer programs teach employees cognitive-behavioral skills. These programs teach employees to view failures as learning opportunities. While company-sponsored stress management programs are effective, the company can’t rely on them alone. The company needs to also look at how they can reduce organizational stress. They can do this by offering extra training to employees to reduce the feeling of incompetence in their jobs, or experimenting with performance-based bonuses. Other companies allow employees to work from home some days, or allow them to take every other Friday off provided their work is completed.

            From a personal perspective, one can cope with stress using coping strategies. These strategies include behavioral methods and cognitive methods. Behavioral coping includes the physical activities used to deal with a stressful situation. Cognitive coping includes thoughts used to deal with stressful situations. In order for these methods to be utilized effectively, they need to have a focus. The textbook divides the focus into either problem-focused or emotion-focused coping. Problem-focused coping involves the behaviors and perceptions that people take on to control the stressful situation as a whole. This often consists of adaptive behavior – people will change the way they act in order to address a certain stressor. This type of stress response will often give a person a better sense of control over the situation. For example, if someone has a tight deadline and they are stressed about getting it done, they can make a list of the things they need to do before the deadline. This will help them feel as though they have a grip on things and will be able to accomplish their goal before the deadline. The other focus of coping is emotional-focused coping. Emotion-focused coping involves the different ways that people control their emotional responses to stressful situations. This can include seeking support, venting anger, taking your mind off of things by doing something else, avoiding the situation, or looking for the ‘silver lining’ in a bad situation.

            By understanding how people cope with stress, we will become better at helping people when they experience stress. To learn how people cope with stress, we look at the method, or in many cases methods, they choose to handle stress. Do they seek support or do they shutdown? People will most often choose the method that best caters to the situation they face. For example, when people face tight deadlines at work they may make a list of the tasks they have to complete before the deadline. They probably will not reach out and seek support. However, if someone experienced a death in the family, they would probably seek support over making a list of tasks to get done.

            Stress in the workplace often arises when people are faced with a task or situation that they are not familiar with or not comfortable with. At Dow Chemical in Midland, MI, workers cited boss interactions as a prominent stressor in the workplace. In response, the company taught employees about “mindful communication” to be able to effectively communicate with upper management. Companies are realizing that their employees’ physiological and psychological well being directly affects the companies’ productivity, so it is in their best interest to help them.

References

Eisenbarth, C. (2012). Coping profiles and psychological distress: a cluster analysis. North American Journal of Psychology, 14(3), 485. Retrieved from http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?id=GALE%7CA312401773&v=2.1&u=lom_oaklandu&it=r&p=HRCA&sw=w

Freudenheim, Milt. "Business and Health; Coping With Stress at Work - New York Times." The New York Times - Breaking News, World News & Multimedia. N.p., n.d. Web. 27 Feb. 2013. <http://www.nytimes.com/1987/05/26/business/business-and-health-coping-with-stress-at-work.html?src=pm>.

SHELLENBARGER, SUE. "The Best Ways to Manage Office Stress - WSJ.com." The Wall Street Journal - Breaking News, Business, Financial and Economic News, World News & Video - Wall Street Journal - Wsj.com. N.p., n.d. Web. 27 Feb. 2013. <http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10000872

Vernarec, E. (2001). How to cope with job stress. Rn, 64(3), 44-46.